Graduate Theses

The Nong Nor Mortuary Ceramics

Joss Debreceny

M.A. Abstract

This work considers the mortuary ceramic assemblage from the Bronze Age site of Nong Nor, in Central Thailand, in order to illuminate questions of social organisation. In contrast to earlier sites such as Khok Phanom Di, where ranking was achieved, a few centuries after the occupation of Nong Nor, complex and hierarchical societies are found in Central Thailand. Whether the elements of this social change and increasing complexity were present in the society of Nong Nor is examined through the analysis of the ceramics.

The site is placed in its environmental and social contexts. Approaches to mortuary analysis and questions of ceramic typology are considered, and a scheme for classification of the vessel forms is presented. The assemblage consists of 255 complete vessels, classified into 20 forms. The shapes and decoration of the ceramics are predominantly simple, with open plates and dishes being the most common form, and cord marking and red slipping being the most common methods of surface treatment.

The spatial arrangement of the cemetery is considered to assist with the identification of stratigraphy and groups of burials. On average, male and older burials were interred with a greater number of vessels and vessel forms than female and younger burials. While there are differences in the number of vessels found with burials, and grave wealth in general, these are not great. It is likely that ranking was achieved, rather than being ascribed. Nevertheless, some change in the society appears to occur over time in the cemetery, and new vessel forms are introduced.
 

An Archaeological Analysis of the Initial Occupation Phase at Nong Nor, Thailand

Dougald O'Reilly

M. A. Abstract

This thesis undertakes the analysis of all aspects of the material culture as well as the faunal remains of the first of two occupation episodes at Nong Nor, Thailand. This phase dates to c. 2500 BC.The results of the analysis are utilised to determine the duration of occupation and whether it was seasonal/intermittent or permanent. The range of subsistence activities and the internal use of space are examined and the site is considered in a broad regional context as well as in relation to a propinquent archaeological site, Khok Phanom Di. This site was settled c. 500 years after the abandonment of Nong Nor and is pertinent due to the presence of rice in its basal layers, a substance not encountered at phase one Nong Nor. The relationship between these two sites is explored and the possibility that Nong Nor was ancestral to Khok Phanom Di is assessed. The results of the comparative analysis are considered with respect to current theories of linguistic expansion and the origins of agriculture in Southeast Asia.

During the first occupation phase, Nong Nor was located on a marine embayment. It was probably occupied only once, during the dry season. The archaeological evidence indicates that the inhabitants exploited both marine and terrestrial resources. The artefactual assemblages from Nong Nor and Khok Phanom Di demonstrate similarities which indicate a cultural continuity in the region. The implications of this are far reaching, in that the large scale exploitation of rice may have had local origins and was not necessarily introduced by intrusive Austroasiatic speaking populations directly.
 

A Diachronic Analysis of Social Organisation in the Mun River Valley

Dougald O'Reilly

PhD Abstract

This thesis examines the development of social complexity in Northeast Thailand with reference to two sites, Ban Lum Khao and Non Muang Kao. These sites, occupied during the Bronze and Iron Ages respectively, were excavated in the hope that they would provide some insight into the hitherto uninvestigated area of prehistoric social development in the Mun River basin. Using the mortuary remains from Ban Lum Khao it has been possible to draw inferences regarding the socio-political environment during the Bronze Age. The evidence from Non Muang Kao, while not as plentiful, indicates that dramatic social changes took place in the region from c. 1000-500 BC. A significant portion of the thesis is dedicated to anthropological and archaeological theory, pertaining to social organisation. An overview of the present state of archaeological research in the Mun River valley is followed by a description of the excavations at Ban Lum Khao and Non Muang Kao. Succeeding chapters are dedicated to the analysis of the archaeological remains, including the presentation of a ceramic categorisation. The data from Ban Lum Khao are subjected to statistical analysis in an attempt to identify possible differences in mortuary practice which may be indicative of the social structure. The evidence from Ban Lum Khao seems to indicate that no entrenched hierarchical system existed during the time the cemetery was in use. The material from Non Muang Kao and other contemporaneous Iron Age sites, however, suggests that such systems developed in subsequent periods. The thesis concludes with an overview of traditional models of social organisation as they pertain to the evidence from Northeast Thailand with a recommendation that the heterarchical model be embraced. It is felt that this paradigm best explains the available data.
 

 

The Dental Health of the People from Noen U-Loke. A Prehistoric Iron Age Site in Northeast Thailand

Kirsten M. Nelsen

M. Sc. Abstract

The use of human skeletal remains gives us an appreciation of the people who once inhabited an archaeological site; their phenotype, genotype, health, and genetic make-up. By investigating and understanding these features, it is possible to make inferences about the people who were once living, their diet, and how well they were adapted to their environment. The dentitions in particular can provide evidence of the type of diet being consumed, and the oral health of the people.

This thesis aims to investigate the dental health of the people from the prehistoric site of Noen U-Loke in order to gain an insight to the people who once inhabited the area. This is conducted by investigating the presence or absence of dental conditions in relation to the sex and age of the individual. These conditions include caries, advanced levels of calculus, advanced levels of attrition, periodontal diseases including advanced periodontitis and advanced alveolar resorption, periapical cavities, ante-mortem tooth loss, and enamel hypoplasia. These conditions were also investigated in relation to other prehistoric Southeast Asian sites from earlier time periods to determine whether their was a general improvement or decline in health over time.

The site of Noen U-Loke is located in the Northeast of Thailand on the Khorat Plateau. It is an Iron Age site, dated from approximately 500 BC to AD 500. The site represents the largest site ever excavated in Thailand, and is the biggest Iron Age cemetery to be found in this part of the world. Noen U-Loke was excavated by the University of Otago, New Zealand and the Fine Arts Department of Thailand over two field seasons from 1996 to 1998. A total of 127 human burials were found at this site with a vast array of elaborate grave goods including gold, silver, iron, bronze, and glass artefacts.

The dental remains from Noen U-Loke imply that the people were healthy. The majority of the individuals suffered from developmental disruptions as children. Low levels of caries, periodontal disease, periapical cavities, and ante-mortem tooth loss were found. All adults over the age of forty years suffered from advanced levels of attrition on at least one tooth. Calculus was common in this population, with males displaying higher levels than females. Females tended to display more enamel hypoplasia, ante-mortem tooth loss, and advanced attrition than males. These prevalences possibly indicate that different types of food were being consumed by the sexes, with females consuming more coarse foods than males.

When comparing these results with people from other prehistoric Southeast Asian skeletal series, it was found that the people from the Bronze and Iron Age sites had very similar levels of health. The Neolithic population showed evidence of a different diet. This may be associated with the introduction of advanced agricultural techniques in the later sites. The introduction of agriculture appears to have generally improved the dental health of the people from the later sites. This suggests that the advent of agriculture was advantageous in Southeast Asia.
 
 

Community Landscapes in Northeast Thailand

Paul Rivett

M. A. Abstract

Northeast Thailand is often seen as a peripheral part of the Khmer, Dvaravati, and Thai civilisations. In this line of thinking, there is an understated concern for the community and their relations with the landscape. Using evidence from archaeology and ethnography, this thesis evokes an image of prehistoric Northeast Thailand from the view of the community. This is centred on 'place', the idea that the lives of the prehistoric inhabitants were intertwined with the landscape as well as with other communities. Thus, the spatial relationship of prehistoric communities is not solely determined by environmental variables, but the result of a number of factors, including environmental, social and industrial. In order to undertake the spatial analysis, the prehistoric landscape must be accurately established: in this case, it is reconstructed from traditional ideas of farming rather than from scientific studies that focus on modern categories and definitions of the environment. A geographical information system (GIS) is used to hold and control the spatial data. Recently, GIS have been criticised for using non-spatial data models for the development of spatial databases; accordingly, I have outlined a hermeneutic procedure for the development of archaeological spatial databases, which involves strict definition and conceptual database design. The results of the spatial analysis highlight the variability is settlement choice, with the majority of sites located in areas for the undertaking of agricultural pursuits, and with a small number of sites located in areas suitable for the establishment and proliferation of the salt-making industry. These results lead to a conception of place in Northeast Thailand, and idea that is supported by the archaeological and ethnographic evidence, and the results of the spatial analysis.
 
 

 
Iron Age Subsistence: The Faunal Remains from Noen U-Loke

             Morag McCaw

             M.A. Abstract
 

Noen U-Loke is a late Bronze and Iron Age settlement (c. 700/800BC - 400AD) in the Upper Mun River Valley, Northeast Thailand. Excavations in 1996-98 uncovered over 1000m³ of cultural material, representing the largest exposure of any such site in Southeast Asia. This dissertation will seek to identify the Iron Age economy as revealed by faunal and molluscan remains. An evaluation of this leads to questions of procurement, processing techniques, mortuary rituals, characteristics of faunal populations, and regional continuity. Of particular interest were exploitation strategies and whether these changed through time. Identifcation of any temporal change in the relative abundance of species is important, especially if it correlates with other aspects of behaviour. The possible intensification of agricultural activities during the Iron Age will be investigated. Expansion in this area has a profound effect on the local environment; forest clearanace and the creation of rice fields would have altered the local environment and water regime. Such a situation can be considered through the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment.

Although the Noen U-Loke subsistence economy involved the exploitationof various wild species, including deer, cattle and water buffalo, domestic animals made up the largest portion of the spectrum. The Bovid population was aged, which has led to questions of whether the animal's value was measured in terms of status, tractive power, consumption, or ritual use. Mortuary offereings are dominated by Sus scrofa. Regional continuity has been identified in a number of other areas, including the characteristics of faunal populations and the species hunted and maintained. The specialised habitats of Pila ampullacea and Filupaludina allowed a partial reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment and identified a change during Layers 3 and 4 towards an environment suitable for rice cultivation. This correlates with the apparent gradual richness of the site, indicated by wealthy graves and an apparent intensification of agricultural activites seen in sickles in graves.

War Before Angkor: The Evidential and Theoretical Context of Warfare in Prehistoric Thailand

James Chetwin

M.A. Abstract

The role of warfare in prehistoric Thai lifeways has been a topic of debate, altough no studies have specifically sought to investigate and explain warfare in prehistoric Thailand. Recent advocacy of the heterarchic paradigm has sought to de-emphasize the role of wafare in sociopolitical change. This thesis seeks to develop a regional understanding of structured violence in Thai prehistory by developing a specific preliminary model for military behaviour in a heterarchic milieu. An overview of definitions and anthropological theory on war is offered, as these issues are crucial to the debate over warfare in prehistoric Thailand. A methodology for military archaeology is developedand utilised to assess the evidence for warfare in the Thai Bronze and Iron Ages. Direct evidence for warfare in the Thai Bronze Age is lacking, while the transition to the Iron Age is concomitant with a variety of changes in military technology and behaviour. There is evidence that warfare was a factor in the socal environment of prehistoric Thailand, though comparative data show that it was not as intense or specialised as that practised by the Dian and Dong Son cultures of northern Southeast Asia. A nonlinear model is proposed to account for the role of warfare in regionally specific historical hypotheses. The model is designed specifically to allow the construction of reliable hypotheses in a heterarchic paradigm.

Health in Late Prehistoric Thailand

             Kate Dommett

             PhD Abstract

 
The aim of this research was to provide a synthesis of the variation in health among prehistoric Thai communities and show that the health of theses people was differentially affected by both their natural and ciltural environment. Four skeletal samples comprisong a total of 500 skeletons provided the material for this research. There were two coastal southeastern skeletal samples, Khok Phanom Di (200-1500BC, early agriculture) and Nong Nor (1100-700BC, Bronze Age) and two inland northeastern samples, Ban Lum Khao (1400BC, Bronze Age) and Ban Na Di (600-400BC, Iron Age). It was hypothesised that the health profile of samples from within the same natural environment would be similar  and, conversely, the health status of the northeast would be in contrast with that of the southeast.  Additionally, it was hypothesised that changes in the cultural environment through time, including the intensification of rice agriculture, would see an improvement in general health.

Health, morbidity and mortality were investigated through the analysis of a selection of parameters that included measures of mortality, growth, growth disturbances, joint disease, trauma, and denatl health. This selection, though not exhaustive, enabled a representation of the health status of the four samples to be obtained and compared. Using a biocultural approach this information has been integrated with archaeological and ethnographic evidence for nutrition, pathogen load, an dculture, to determine the effect each natural and cultural environment had on community health.

Within the southeast region the health profile of the Khok Phanom Di and Nong Nor samples were in contrast; Nong Nor had lower subadult mortality, taller adult statures and lower prevalences of dental pathologies. However, skeletal preservation was poor at Nong Nor and not all parameters were able to be observed. Within the northeastern samples health profiles were similar in overall prevalences of dental pathologies, but childhood morbitidity and mortality were different. The latter, measured through observations of infant mortality, enamel hypoplasia and adult stature, were highre at Ban Lum Khao than Ban Na Di. The natural environment has had a significant influence on the health status of the people studied but not in the manner hypothesised. Comparisons within and between regions were complicated by time differences that may have affected the people's ability to cope with their environment. The comparatively poorer health suffered by the Khok Phanom Di and Ban Lum Khao communities may been related to their settlement and adjustment of potentially new environments. In contrast, it is likely that both the Nong Nor and Ban Na Di communities were familiar with their natural environments as they were not the first settlers in their respective regions.

With repect to the cultural hypothesis, results indicated a general improvement in health had occured through the time periods studied. The earliest sample, the people of Khok Phanom Di, were the least healthy. They had comparatively high prevalences of dental pathologies and joint disease, and high subadult mortality and morbidity, the latter reducing the attained adult stature. Health improved into the Bronze Age, particularly so in the Nong Nor sample, who had low subadult mortality and tall statures compared with the Ban Lum Khao sample. However, poor preservation of the Nong Nor skeletal material places a caveat over any interpretation. The people of the early Iron Age at Ban Na Di continued the trend for improving health. They had a moderate subadult mortality and morbidity, the latter was recovered from successfully as they reached tall statures. In addition, dental health improved and osteoarthritis decreased with time. Post-Iron Age, Thai people underwent an expansion of society led by the establishment of the centralised political regime of the Angkorian civilisation. From this selective view of skeletal health it appears that the people were healthy enough to withstand this transition. Further integration with other prehistoric Southeast Asian skeletal samples is now required to support this statement.

 
Analysing Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Northeast Thailand Using GIS

             Paul Rivett

             Diploma in Spatial Information Systems

            No abstract available.
 
 

Books and Final Excavation Reports

In the late sixteenth century a mythical encounter was reported on an elephant hunt in the dense jungle north of the Tonle Sap, or Great Lake of central Cambodia. King Satha of Cambodia and his retainers were beating a path through the undergrowth when they were halted by stone giants and a massive wall. The King, the fable reported, ordered 6,000 men to clear away the jungle, thereby exposing the city of Angkor - 'lost' for over a century.

Subsequent reports from Portuguese missionaries described its four gateways, with bridges flanked by stone figures leading across a moat. There were idols covered in gold, inscriptions, fountains, canals, and 'a temple with five towers, called Angor'. For four centuries, this huge complex has inspired awe amongst visitors from all over the world, but only now are its origins and history becoming clear.

This book begins with the progress of the prehistoric commuinities of the area and draws upon the author's recent excavations to portray the rich and expansive chiefdoms that existed at the dawn of civilization. It covers the origins of early states, up to the establishment, zenith and decline of this extraordinary civilization, whose most impressive acheiveent was the construction of the gilded temple mausoleum of Angkor Wat in the twelfth century, allegedly by 70,000 people.

Drawing on the latest research on prehistoric archaeology, epigrpahy and art history, Charles Higham has written a clear and concise history of this remarkable civilization.
 
 

Khok Phanom Di commanded a major estuary on the Gulf of Siam between 2000-1500 BC. The previous four volumes in this series have reported on the excavation, the environment, biological remains and aspects of material culture of the site. The excavation area included part of a cemetery, representing a sample of interments over perhaps 500 years. This volume describes the morphology and evidence for health of the people buried in the 154 graves exposed. The burials were virtually undisturbed so the skeletons, which were the primary source of information, were in superb condition and almost all complete. The bone was also extremely well preserved. The early chapters in this volume report on the census and demography of the cemetery sample. The extraordinary preservation of the skeletons provided a wealth of data on body size and shape, growth and growth disruption, dental and skeletal health and disease. These are detailed in this volume, a review of the methods and theoretical basis for their use. Environmental and biological data from previous volumes have been combined with the skeletal and dental evidence in the development of a synthesis of the role of diet and nutrition, infectious diseases and parasites, and patterns of physical activity in determining the quality of life of the people of Khok Phanom Di. The previous volumes have detailed evidence for a major environmental change during the period of use of the cemetery; the consequences of this change for the health and survival of the population are discussed.
 

General Series Abstract

Khok Phanom Di is a large prehistoric settlement, excavated in 1984-85 by the University of Otago and the Fine Arts Department. Occupied between 2000-1500 BC, it provided data in many respects unique to Southeast Asia: 154 burials were found grouped in clusters, superimposed over about 20 generations. There were individual graves even for new born infants. Faecal remains and partially digested food found in the pelvic area of the dead attest to the finer details of the prehistoric diet. One woman was interred with over 120,000 shell beads, she would have dazzled in reflected sunlight. Wooden posts survived in post holes, a large raised collective tomb was identified, and a huge range of shellfish remains, rice, ceramics, even leaves and nuts survived.

The site is being published in seven volumes by the Society of Antiquaries of London.
 

The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di Volume 1 The Excavation, Chronology and Human Burials 1990. C.F.W. Higham and R. Bannanurag editors, Society of Antiquaries of London, Dunedin.

The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di Volume 2 The Biological Remains (Part 1) 1991. C.F.W. Higham and R. Bannanurag editors, Society of Antiquaries of London, Dunedin.
 

The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di Volume 3 The Material Culture (Part 1) 1993. C.F.W. Higham and R. Bannanurag editors, Society of Antiquaries of London, Dunedin..
 

The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di Volume 4 Subsistence and Environment: The Botanical Evidence (The Biological Remains Part 2) 1996. C.F.W. Higham and R. Thosarat editors, Society of Antiquaries of London, Dunedin.
 
 
 
 

Prehistoric Thailand: From Early Settlement to Sukhothai

Thailand occupies a unique crossroads in Southeast Asia. The Mekong and Chao Phraya rivers link the interior of China with the sea and the Three Pagodas Pass reaches west to India. Through the ages, this central postion has brought many different peoples and ideas to Thailand and, as a result of recent excavations, a pattern to the settlement of Thailand is now emerging.

Charles Higham and Rachanie Thosarat interweave text and colour illustrations, many previously unpublished, to trace the development of early Thai societies, from the early hunter-gatherers of the inland forest and the coastal waters to the glittering civilisation of Sukhothai. Using new research they describe how the first bronzes were cast in village communities such as Ban Chiang. A major change took place from about 500 BC when iron came in to use, chiefdoms developed and trade opened the area to ideas and goods from India and China. Iron age chiefs, whose wealth is evident in the silver, gold, agate and carnelian ornaments found in their burial chambers, laid the foundations for the civilisation of Angkor and Dvaravati states, the origins of modern Thailand.

Prehistoric Thailand fuses Western and Thai source material and research to present a unique overview of the development of societies in this vibrant country.
 
 

Abstract

Nong Nor is a prehistoric site located in Chonburi Province, Southeast Thailand. It was excavated in 1991-93. There are two distinct phases of occupation. The first, dated to the mid third millennium BC, invoved a small group which stayed for a brief span, perhaps only a season. After an interval of about 1500 years, the site was used as a Bronze Age cemetery. The excavators recovered 170 graves, dated within the period 1100-700 BC.

When summarising Nong Nor in its broader context, the authors suggest that the first period inhabitants were ancestral to the early occupants of Khok Phanom Di, who lived adjacent to a major estuary five centuries after Nong Nor was abandoned. Both sites reveal a coastal adaptation by hunter-gatherer-fishers who, at the later site, responded to contact with intrusive agriculturalists. The Bronze Age cemetery reveals widespread exchange networks, and for the first time in Thailand, the use of copper and tin grave goods in addition to those made of their alloy, bronze.
 
 

Abstract

The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia has been described as an enigma and a challenge. While some scholars see it as separate from parallel developments in other areas, others have claimed the earliest dates for bronze anywhere. This book is the first comprehensive study of the period, placed within a broader comparative framework. Charles Higham suggests that the adoption of metallurgy in the region followed a period of growing exchange with China. He then traces the development of Bronze Age cultures into and including the Iron Age, identifying regionality and innovation.

The book provides a systematic and regional presentation of the current evidence. Using a thematic approach, Higham provides an up-to-date account of the period, documenting evidence site by site. This is the first time these regions have integrated in research to provide an understanding of how and why their distinct cultures developed.
 

 

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