Taking philosophical questions around the world – from Portugal to Princeton

In this Q&A, Otago Philosophy graduate and Princeton PhD candidate João Carvalho talks about his research focus, his move from Portugal to Aotearoa, and the lasting influences of his time at Otago.

After completing his undergraduate degree at the Universidade de Coimbra, in Portugal, João gained a scholarship to study at Otago, and graduated with a Master’s in Philosophy, with Distinction, in 2021. He then headed to the United States.

Can you tell us about your research at Princeton?

The philosophical and scientific landscape of the seventeenth century is at the heart of my research.

This is a major turning point in the history of philosophy, as many philosophers began to reject the scientific worldview that had dominated since Ancient Greece and Aristotle.

Among other things, this meant challenging the idea that the natural world could be explained by immaterial entities – what medieval philosophers called substantial forms. For example, on this earlier view, an acorn becomes an oak tree because it possesses a particular substantial form that guides its growth and function. Seventeenth-century philosophers increasingly thought that this type of explanation is mistaken.

In reaction to these earlier approaches, figures like Galileo argued that the world should instead be understood mathematically – that “Mathematics is the language with which God has written the universe".

Following Galileo, Descartes maintained that bodies contain only geometrical properties, and that, once motion is added to the picture, physical bodies are fundamentally like the abstract objects studied in geometry. Descartes’ programme quickly took hold under the broader label of mechanism: the view that natural phenomena can be explained entirely in terms of matter in motion operating according to natural laws.

My research traces the development of this mechanistic programme in the work of Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), an influential Dutch philosopher who was deeply impressed by Descartes’ new scientific vision.

One of Spinoza’s central challenges was to integrate this mechanical conception of nature with a coherent account of human action. If mechanism is true – if all natural phenomena result solely from causes acting through local contact – then how are we to understand human agency?

Are human beings, as physical entities, governed only by local motion and impact? And if so, can such a framework accommodate those aspects of human life that seem resistant to mechanistic description: our ability to deliberate, our orientation toward ends, our sense of freedom, our responsiveness to value, and our practice of giving reasons for acting? My work investigates how Spinoza addresses these questions.

What is it like to be studying at such a distinguished Ivy League university?

Studying at Princeton has been a very rewarding experience. The programme gives you immense flexibility to pursue your own interests.

In my first two years, I was able to take different classes on a variety of subjects in philosophy. After that, you get to choose your dissertation topic in close co-ordination with your advisor.

It has been incredibly fulfilling to discuss philosophy with so many thoughtful, talented people, who care deeply about their work. From my advisor to my peers, I’m grateful for the conversations and the intellectual generosity I’ve encountered. I’ve learned a tremendous amount from them.

What drew you to Otago for your initial postgraduate studies?

When I finished my undergraduate degree back home, I knew I wasn’t done with philosophy. I wasn’t entirely sure what I wanted to focus on, but I knew it had to involve the history of philosophy.

So I began looking for Masters’ programmes with that emphasis – both in Portugal and abroad. Michael LeBuffe, who later became my advisor at Otago, is a leading expert on Spinoza, a philosopher who I had first encountered as an undergraduate.

The opportunity to study Spinoza with him while living in New Zealand – who wouldn’t want to live in Aotearoa? – was a really attractive proposition. I remember looking at the Otago Philosophy Department placement record and being in awe – graduates had gone to Australian National University , Harvard, UCLA, and other top programmes.

But what truly made it possible for me to choose Otago was the support of the Alan Musgrave Scholarship in Philosophy, which provided the financial means that I, as an international student, otherwise wouldn’t have had.

Can you tell us about the highlights and influences of your time at Otago?

I still miss the Philosophy Department at Otago. In fact, I returned last year to do more research on Spinoza with Michael LeBuffe, who first taught me how to study Spinoza with care and rigor.

Mike’s intellectual mentorship has had a lasting influence on me. The rest of the department has equally made a strong impression on me through their rigorous scholarship and, just as important, their warm, collegial intellectual environment.

My fellow graduate students were awesome and helped me adjust to life in a new country. I look forward to returning again one day and hopefully meeting many of you again.